01 Translation

It is responsible for studying the structure of living beings, that is, the form (morphology), topography, arrangement, location, and interrelationship of the organs that compose it.
Cadaver dissection is the foundation of our knowledge.
The field of study is living beings.

Why do we study anatomy?

Knowledge of the body for the practice of Naturopathy
75% of health sciences vocabulary comes from anatomy
It allows us to make assessments and diagnose diseases and trauma.
It allows us to offer appropriate treatment.

2. Classes or divisions of anatomical studies

Anatomy can be studied from different approaches or points of view. The most commonly used are:

Macroscopic anatomy: larger than 0.1mm
Microscopic anatomy: smaller than 0.1mm
Radiological anatomy: study of structure through imaging, these images are captured by radiodiagnostic means.
Topographic or regional anatomy: the study that describes a body region.
Developmental or evolutionary anatomy: the science that describes structure in different evolutionary periods.[1]
*Phylogenic aspect: (phylos: species) study of evolution (or adaptation) in a species.
*Ontogenic aspect: (ontos: being) study of evolution (or adaptation) of a being.
Comparative anatomy: Description of human structure compared with the study of other animals (vertebrates)
Energetic anatomy (concept derived from the syncretic religious movement of the New Age): the body has different points called chakras or nadis, which are supposed circuits through which energy flows. Therefore it is the description of the body by different energy levels.

Study methods of macroscopic anatomy (traditional anatomy)

Regional anatomy: structural relationships between parts of the body in a specific region.
Systemic anatomy: study of body systems or apparatus (urology, osteology, neurology, etc.).
Clinical anatomy: uses the previous methods for specific clinical applications (physical examination, endoscopy, imaging methods)

3. TOPOGRAPHIC OR REGIONAL ANATOMY

The human body is topographically divided into three parts:

Head.
Trunk.
Extremities.

The Head

The head is located in the upper part of the body and is formed by a spheroidal framework of flat bones that enclose very delicate organs, such as the control center, record and data processing called the brain.

It pivots on the spine (cervical) and performs rotational movements through the neck muscles. In the front part, called the face, there are other important organs that make up the senses, such as sight, hearing, balance, smell and taste.

The head is divided into two well-differentiated areas: the skull and the face or facial mass.
Skull:
Limits: cranial vault, base of the skull.
Interesting parts: brain (cerebrum and cerebellum), medulla oblongata.
Face:
Eyes: pupil, cornea, lens, iris. Other parts: tear, eyelid, eyebrow, eyelash, tear duct.
Ears: ear, ear canal, eardrum, cochlea, Eustachian tube.
Nose: nasal passages, nasal septum, pituitary glands, mucosa.
Mouth: lips, jaws, teeth, chin, palate, mucosa, tonsils, tongue, saliva, pharynx, epiglottis, glottis, larynx, trachea, esophagus.

The upper part of the head is covered with skin and, usually, hair, and this combination is called the scalp.

All the bones that make up the head are fixed, without joint movement except for the so-called lower jaw or mandible, whose most prominent central point is called the chin.

The upper front part is called the forehead; each side of the forehead, located on both sides of the face above the corner of the eyes, is called the temple.

The lower back part of the head, located below the base of the skull, is called the nape; the lower front part, located below the lower jaw, is called the throat. The surrounding part, together with the previous ones, forms a narrowing that joins the head to the trunk and is called the neck.

Through the neck run the cervical vertebrae, located in the back part, which hold the head to the spine and inside this runs the important bundle of nerves called the spinal cord.

Inside the neck there are two passages that, starting from the pharynx, connect with the respiratory and digestive system and are called the trachea and esophagus. There are also two large blood vessels that, located on both sides, supply blood to the brain and face and are called the jugular and carotid.

The Trunk
The trunk is the widest part of the body and contains important organs and viscera such as those that make up the respiratory and circulatory system. It also contains those that form the digestive system and reproductive system, among others, and is divided into two parts:
Thorax: It is the upper part. It is protected by a framework formed by the ribs and separated from the abdomen by the muscle called the diaphragm. The upper extremities or arms attach to it.
Front area: chest or torso.
Back area: back or dorsum.
Bones: ribs, sternum, collarbone, spine (Bones: ribs, sternum, clavicle, vertebral column ( and thoracic).
Muscle (internal): diaphragm.
Viscera: lungs, heart.

Other solid viscera of the abdomen located beneath the lower ribs: liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, kidneys.

Other solid viscera of the abdomen located under the lower part of the ribs: liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, kidneys. It is the lower part. The lower extremities or legs attach to it. Its central point is the navel.
Upper front area: epigastrium.
Lower front area: belly.
Back area: lumbar region.
Lower back area: buttocks (glutes or rear end).
Lower area: genitals, anus.
Bones: spine (Bones: vertebral column ( and sacral), pelvis (ilium, ischium, pubis).
Hollow viscera: stomach, intestines (large and small), urinary bladder.
Solid viscera: liver, pancreas, spleen, gallbladder, kidneys.

Other interesting parts: reproductive systems.

Extremities

They are elongated and articulated fleshy masses that extend from the trunk. In humans, the extremities have specific functions:

Upper or arms: They serve to grasp and manipulate objects and identify them through touch.
Interesting parts: shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm, wrist, hand, fingers.
Lower or legs: They serve to elevate the trunk and to walk.

Interesting parts: hip, thigh, knee, leg, ankle, foot, toes.

Topographic distribution

The organs and systems:

Head
Cranial vault or skull: Brain (central nervous system).
Facial skeleton or face: Senses (sensory nervous system).
Trunk
Thorax: Respiratory, Circulatory.
Abdomen: Digestive, Urinary, Reproductive, Endocrine.
Extremities: Locomotor and peripheral nervous system

4. ANATOMICAL POSITION AND ANATOMICAL PLANES

This position must meet the following requirements:

Standing upright
Head erect without tilting
Eyes open, looking straight ahead and at the same level
Arms extended at the sides of the body
Palms of the hands facing forward
Legs extended and together
Feet parallel and heels together

Anatomical planes

The horizontal plane is formed by combining the anteroposterior and lateral axes and is called the axial plane. The axial plane is perpendicular to the vertical axis, which goes from the head to the feet and divides the body into a lower part (pedal or caudal) and an upper part (cranial or cephalic).

The sagittal plane is formed by the anteroposterior and vertical axes. This plane divides the body into two symmetric halves (it is the only plane that does this).

The coronal or frontal plane is formed by the transverse and vertical axes and divides the body into a ventral or anterior part and a dorsal or posterior part.

With the subject in anatomical position, it is possible to trace three cutting planes in him, perpendicular to each other, that allow us to orient ourselves in the three planes of space:

The median sagittal plane (1), perpendicular to the ground, divides the body into two halves or right and left, more or less symmetric. In relation to this plane two terms emerge: "medial", which denotes proximity to the median or sagittal plane, and "lateral", which means the opposite.

For example, the clavicle has a medial end, which articulates with the sternum, and a lateral end, which articulates with the scapula.

The frontal or coronal plane (2), perpendicular to the floor, divides the body into a ventral and a dorsal half, allowing us to orient ourselves in an anteroposterior direction. In humans the term "ventral" is synonymous with anterior and the term "dorsal" is synonymous with posterior. Ex. The shoulder blade

The horizontal plane (3), parallel to the floor, divides the body into a "cephalic" or "superior" half and a "caudal" or "inferior" half, allowing us to orient ourselves in a vertical direction. Ex. The sternum

For extremities the terms "proximal" are used, which means close to the insertion of the extremity in the trunk; and "distal", which denotes the opposite. Thus, the humerus, the bone of the arm, has a proximal end, which participates in the shoulder joint, and a distal end, which participates in the elbow joint.

For hollow organs or body cavities, the terms "internal" or "external" are used to show proximity or distance from the center of the cavity respectively. For example, the heart has an internal layer, the endocardium, and an external layer, the pericardium.

Finally, the terms "superficial" and "deep" denote, respectively, close or distant from the body surface. For example, in the forearm there is a superficial venous system, easy to observe and puncture, and a deep venous system, which accompanies the arteries and which we cannot see without deep anatomical dissection.

5. ANATOMICAL SECTIONS:

Coronal plane

It is the section made through the median longitudinal line that passes through the ears and divides the body into two unequal parts, anterior and posterior. It is called coronal because it passes through the coronal suture (junction of the frontal bone with the two parietal bones).

Longitudinal sections

These sections are made through the parietal lines parallel to the median longitudinal line or coronal plane, that is, they are also longitudinal lines but anterior or posterior to the coronal line.

Sagittal plane

A median line perpendicular to the longitudinal plane that divides the human body into two equal parts; this section can be performed in the anatomical position. According to this section, everything close to the median line is called medial and everything away from it is called lateral.

Transverse median plane

It is the section made horizontally and perpendicular to the sagittal plane and passes through the umbilicus dividing the human body into two superior and inferior halves, which are not equal because the sides into which it is divided are not symmetrical.

Transverse sections

These are all sections that can be made parallel to the median transverse plane, either superior or inferior to it.

Anatomical movements

• Flexion/extension.

• Abduction/adduction.

• Internal/external rotation.

• Circumduction: movement that describes a cone and includes all the previous ones.

6. BODY CAVITIES

Dorsal cavity

This cavity is composed of two major parts: cranial cavity and vertebral cavity.

The cranial cavity

It is located inside the bony cranial box, it is the most superior cavity, it is medial and continues with the canal called the vertebral canal; it contains the brain and cerebellum.

The vertebral cavity

It forms a canal called the vertebral canal that runs along the entire length of the spinal column internally, it joins above with the cranial cavity through the occipital foramen and extends to the gluteal region, its position is dorsal and medial throughout its course; it contains the spinal cord.

The dorsal cavity therefore contains and protects important organs of the communication and locomotion systems, among others.

Thoracic cavity

This cavity is protected by the ribcage, that is, it is located within the thorax, it is inferior to the cranial cavity and lateral and anterior to the vertebral cavity, it occupies the entire thorax and is formed by three cavities:

Right pulmonary cavity

Which contains the right lung, it is located lateral right and anterior to the vertebral cavity.

Left pulmonary cavity

Which contains the left lung, it is located lateral left and anterior to the vertebral cavity.

Cardiac cavity

Which contains the heart and mediastinum, it is located between the pulmonary cavities and anterior to the vertebral cavity.

Abdominal cavity: quadrants

It is a large cavity that occupies the entire abdominal region, surrounded by white muscular tissues in almost its entire extension except for the middle dorsal part which is supported by the vertebral column, it is divided for study by transverse and sagittal or vertical lines into several quadrants in the following way:

By drawing an imaginary horizontal line parallel to the middle transverse or umbilical line that passes through the costal margins and another line that runs parallel to the former and through the two anterior-superior iliac spines.

By drawing two imaginary vertical, sagittal lines parallel to the midline that start from the midclavicular points, passing through the mammary points and crossing the entire abdomen.

Body Cavities:

The nine (9) quadrants:

THREE UPPER	I	Right hypochondrium
	II	Epigastrium
	III	Left hypochondrium
THREE MIDDLE	IV	Right flank
	V	Umbilical region
	VI	Left flank
THREE LOWER	VII	Right iliac fossa
	VIII	Hypogastrium
	IX	Left iliac fossa

In each of these quadrants different abdominal organs are found:

I. Right hypochondrium: Where the liver, gallbladder, hepatic flexure of the colon and deeply the right kidney are located.

II. Epigastrium: Where the stomach, duodenum, pancreas, and solar plexus are located.

III. Left hypochondriac region: where the tail of the pancreas, spleen, splenic angle of the colon, and deeper down the left kidney are located

IV. Right flank: Where the ascending colon and small intestinal loops are located.

V. Umbilical region: Where small intestinal loops are found.

VI. Left flank: Where the descending colon and small intestinal loops are found.

VII. Right iliac fossa: Where the cecum, cecal appendix, and right adnexa in women are located.

VIII. Hypogastrium: Where the greater omentum, small intestinal loops, bladder, and uterus in women are located.

IX. Left iliac fossa: Where the sigmoid colon and left adnexa in women are located.

In the abdominal cavity, other cavities can also be found; in the lower part of it, the so-called pelvic cavity is distinguished, this cavity is located posterior to the pubis, anterior to the sacrum and surrounded by the iliac bones, and this is how this cavity is formed, which contains the reproductive organs and the bladder.

7. ANATOMICAL REFERENCE POINTS

Upper limb

Acromial point (Acromiale). It is the "most lateral and external point of the acromion," with the subject in anatomical position. It serves to determine the midpoint of the arm, reference for taking triceps and biceps skinfolds and relaxed arm circumference, acromial height, arm length, upper limb length, and biacromial diameter.

Radial point (Radiale). It is the most lateral, external, and proximal point of the radial head. With it, you can determine the midpoint of the arm for taking triceps and biceps skinfolds and relaxed arm circumference, radial height, arm length, and forearm length.

Acromial-radial midpoint. Midpoint of the acromial-radial distance determined with a measuring tape.

Styloid point (Stylion). Most distal point of the radial styloid process. With this point we can determine the bisstyloid diameter of the wrist, styloid height, forearm length, and hand length.

The location of the Ulnar Styloid Point is performed on the medial and dorsal part of the wrist.

Bisstyloid midpoint. This point coincides with the midpoint distance between the two radial and ulnar styloid processes.

Head and trunk

Vertex. Scientifically and technically it is defined as the highest point of the skull in the median sagittal plane when the head is positioned in the Frankfort plane. This point is not marked. With it, you can determine the individual's height with traction and inspiration and seated height (distance from the bench to the vertex).

Glabella (Glabella). It is the most prominent point of the frontal bone in the mediosagittal plane and located between the eyebrows.

Mentonion (Gnathion). Lower point of the chin in the median sagittal plane. It is located on the chin at the level of the lower border of the mandible.

Cervical point (Cervicale). Corresponds to the spinous process of the 7th cervical vertebra (C7). To locate it, we position ourselves behind the subject and palpate the spinous process of D1, which is the most prominent; we then ask the subject to bend their head forward in flexion, separating the spinous process of the 7th C from the spinous process of D1, allowing it to be palpated and located to then be marked with a dermographic pencil, once the subject returns to anatomical position. With this point you can determine trunk height (distance from the bench to the cervical point).

Subscapular point/reference: In the same situation above, the subscapular point is marked, which serves as a reference for taking the subscapular skinfold, 2 cm from the lower and outer angle of the scapula.

Suprasternal point (Supraesternale). Most superior point of the sternal manubrium (sternal notch) in the median sagittal plane. With this point you can locate the mesosternal point.

Mesosternal point (Mesoesternale). Located in the body of the sternum at the intersection of the median sagittal plane with the transverse plane at the level of the fourth costochondral articulation. With this point you can determine the mesosternal chest circumference and the AP chest diameter.

Ileocrestal point (Ileocrestale). Most proximal and lateral point of the iliac crest. It is not marked and serves as a reference for taking the suprailiac (iliac crest) skinfold and the biiliocrestal (intercrestal) diameter.

Ilospinous point (Ileoespinale). Point located at the lower end of the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) (not on the more frontal surface). It serves to take the iliospinous height and as a reference to locate and take the supraspinous skinfold.

Abdominal skinfold point/reference. It is located on the right half of the body 5 cm from the umbilical scar (umbilical point).

Mamillary (Thelion). Point located on the nipple.

Epigastric (Epigastrale). Point located between the xiphoid process and the navel at the intersection of the mediosagittal plane with the transverse plane at the level of the lowest point of the tenth rib.

Umbilical (Omphalion). Located at the midpoint of the umbilical scar.

Pubic (Pubic Symphysis Point) (Symphysion or Pubicus). Coincides with the upper edge of the pubic symphysis in the median sagittal plane. The mark is usually located above the upper level of pubic hair and can be easily felt through light clothing. With this point you can determine trunk length. The subject can sometimes assist in locating the upper surface of the pubic bone.

Gluteal (Gluteale). It is the sacrococcygeal articulation (sacrococcygeal fusion) in the mediosagittal plane (middle gluteal fold).

Lower limb

Trochanteric point. Most proximal and superior point of the greater trochanter of the femur. We must never confuse it with the most protruding or lateral portion of the trochanter. With it, you can determine the midpoint of the thigh to take the thigh circumference in its middle third, trochanteric height, thigh length, and lower limb length.

Lateral tibial point (Tibiale Laterale). It is the most proximal and lateral or external point of the proximal end of the tibia (external tibial plateau). With it, you can determine the thigh length, tibial height, thigh circumference in its middle third (thigh 2).

Medial tibial point (Tibiale Mediale). Most proximal and internal point of the tibial plateau. With it, you can determine the tibial height and leg length. It corresponds approximately at the same transverse plane where the lateral tibial point is located.

Trochanteric-tibial midpoint. It is the midpoint of the distance between the trochanteric point and lateral tibial point and serves as a reference for taking the mid-thigh circumference.

Midpoint of the anterior thigh surface. It is the midpoint distance from the inguinal fold to the upper pole of the kneecap. It serves as a reference for taking the anterior thigh skinfold.

Tibial malleolar point, internal or medial (Sphyrion Tibiale). It is the most distal point of the tibial malleolus and not the most protruding zone of the malleolus. With this point you can determine: malleolar height, leg length, and biimalleolar diameter. Its location is easier from below.

Fibular malleolar point, external or lateral (Sphyrion Fibulare). It is the most distal point of the fibular malleolus, which is more distal than the tibial malleolus. Its location is facilitated with the subject on a platform.

Calcaneal point (Pternion). Most posterior point of the calcaneus (heel of the foot) with the subject's foot resting on the support plane (usually the bench). It is not marked and with it you can determine foot length.

Pedal or anterior foot point (Akropodion). Most anterior point of the toes when the subject is in bipedal stance (anatomical position). It may coincide with the first or second toe. Toenails must be trimmed for correct measurement. It is not marked and with it you can determine foot length.

Tibial metatarsal (Metatarsale). Most medial point of the head of the first metatarsal, with the subject in anatomical position. With it you can determine foot width.

Fibular metatarsal (Metatarsale Fibulare). Most lateral point of the head of the fifth metatarsal when the subject is in anatomical position. It serves to take foot width.

8. PHYSIOLOGY DEFINITION

Physiology is one of the biological sciences, and it is directly interrelated with other biological sciences. It also has various degrees of relationship with other sciences, indirectly.

Origin and relationship of physiology with biology:

Physiology: (physis: nature), means the science that studies the functions of the human being.

Today it is considered that function and structure are linked and therefore cannot be studied independently of one another.

Classification of physiology

Cellular physiology: functioning of the cell

Special physiology: studies specific areas such as cellular function, movement, acoustics, etc.

Physiology of exercise: study of the function of movement in the human being.

Environmental or ecological physiology: the relationship that exists between the organism and the environment.

Physiology of development: study of the embryonic process, combined with molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetic engineering.

9. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN THE HUMAN BODY

Chemical and biochemical level: depending on how molecules are organized, it is called one way or another.
Cellular level: it comprises the basic functional unit: the cell. It carries out all vital functions.
Tissue or tissues level: cellular units with similar function.
Organic level: made up of the different organs of the human body, participates in the performance of a function.
Systemic level: a set of organs that form a system or apparatus.
1. – a set of organs with identical structure and embryological origin. Apparatus
1. – a set of distinct organs in their structure that contribute to performing the same function. This organization of the human body allows harmonious communication and interrelation of each of the structures of the human body, in its metabolic, defense, nutrition, and detection processes, etc.

This organization of the human body allows for harmonious communication and interrelationship of each of the structures of the human body, in its metabolic, defense, nutrition, and detection processes, etc.

10. TISSUES

There are four fundamental animal tissues: epithelial, connective, nervous, and nervous. These tissues, according to their embryological origin, can be classified into two major groups:

Types of tissues:

1st. Epithelial tissues: found on the surface of organic structures. Their main function is to collect and convey the primary sensation for any organism capable of detecting small variations.

2nd. Nervous tissue: collects that sensation captured by the epithelium and transmits it to nervous structures, where it is associated with other stimuli, integrated as a whole, and the response is analyzed.

3rd. Muscular tissue: carries out the action and contraction.

4th. Connective tissue: connects structures.

Tissues of the Human Body

11. SYSTEMS

Musculoskeletal system: its function is locomotion, balance, manipulation, suspension, and also expresses how a person is doing physically.
Nutrition and food system, which includes the respiratory system, the digestive system, and the excretory system.
Cardiovascular system: (blood, heart, vessels): among other things, it transports nutrients, hormones, and oxygen through the blood and also acts as a defense system.
Neuroendocrine system: forms a functional unit responsible for collecting information from the epithelium, analyzing the information (stimulus), then integrating it (associating it), and finally choosing the type of response, whether rapid or fleeting.
Reproductive system: Its purpose is reproduction and the continuity of the species.

12. HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis is the set of physiological mechanisms by which the organism maintains relatively constant conditions of the internal environment, despite changes in the external environment.

This dynamic equilibrium is essential for cellular survival and the proper functioning of organs and systems, since processes such as enzymatic activity, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction only occur within narrow ranges of variables such as temperature, pH, salt concentration, glucose, and water content.

The internal environment is fundamentally made up of body fluids. The interstitial fluid, which directly surrounds cells, comes from the vascular fluid (blood plasma); both are part of the extracellular fluid.

In turn, the intracellular fluid and the extracellular fluid make up the total body fluids, which represent approximately 60% of body weight in a healthy adult.

Homeostasis does not mean immobility, but rather continuous regulation through control systems—primarily nervous, endocrine, and renal—that precisely adjust internal variables to preserve biological stability.

The phenomenon of osmosis and how the movement of water through the cell membrane depends on the concentration of solutes in the extracellular medium. In an isotonic medium, the concentration of particles is similar inside and outside the cell, so there is no net movement of water and cell volume remains stable. In a hypertonic medium, the exterior contains more solutes, which causes water to leave the cell and it shrinks. However, in a hypotonic medium, the exterior is more dilute, water enters the cell and it swells, potentially bursting if the imbalance is extreme.

[1] From the point of view of Evolutionary Theory. But from the point of view of Creationism or Intelligent Design as it is called in some circles, we would speak of adaptation processes or degenerative processes.

Supportive, Professional, Client-Focused Service

1. CONCEPTS